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Developing Inclusionary Climates that Influence
the Motivational Levels of Children with Disabilities
John R. Todorovich & Christine B. Stopka University of Florida
One of the most intriguing aspects of working among individuals with
disabilities is the discovery of methods that can positively influence
their desire to be engaged in an activity at a high level. That is,
it is sometimes hard to motivate individuals with disabilities just
as it is to motivate individuals without disabilities. Therefore,
researchers interested in pedagogical practices that positively influence
the motivational levels of children with disabilities have begun to
investigate those practices that seem to work the best.
Achievement Goal Theory
Arguably, the line of research that has shown the most promise in
influencing the motivational level of individuals with disabilities
are pedagogical practices that arise from the components of achievement
goal theory (Duda, 1996; Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Nicholls, 1989).
Researchers working with this theory have either focused on pupils’
goals or the nature of the classroom and environmental climates that
lead to the formation of these goals.
The central proposition of achievement goal theory revolves around
the manner in which individuals determine their goals in achievement
settings such as sport, PE, and the classroom. This proposition indicates
that individuals in achievement settings are typically oriented to
one of two goals when determining whether or not they have been successful
in these contexts.
Individuals who determine success based on self-improvement and task
mastery are displaying a task orientation. For example, runners primarily
concerned with improving their technical form and race times are displaying
a task orientation. Conversely, individuals who determine success
by comparing their own performances with those of others are displaying
an ego orientation. For example, runners who focus on beating their
competition regardless of time or technique are displaying an ego
orientation. (For a more complete understanding of achievement goal
theory see Nicholls, 1984, 1989 and Dweck & Leggett, 1988.)
Although researchers continue to debate whether task orientation
or ego orientation is more desirable, the majority of the literature
tends to support that a task orientation is more conducive to positive
behaviors in achievement settings. Moreover, researchers have now
begun to develop pedagogical practices that seem to influence the
achievement goal orientation of individuals. Therefore, the primary
purpose of this paper is to describe the methods that one can use
to positively influence an individuals with disabilities to engage
in achievement settings with a task orientation.
Motivational Climates
Ames (1992a, 1992b) has argued that individual goal orientations
may be influenced by the motivational climates that are created by
what teachers and significant others say and do. Moreover, Ames (1992a,
1992b) suggested that climates focused on skill learning and self-improvement
influence task orientation, while climates focused on comparisons
of performance and ability with peers foster an ego orientation. Climates
that foster a task orientation are called task-involving while climates
that foster an ego orientation are called ego-involving.
Principles described by Ames (1992b) and Epstein (1988) concerning
classroom structure and resulting climates are used to design motivational
climates that influence task or ego orientation. These principles
are based on the alterable elements of a lesson which are, task, authority,
rewards, grouping, evaluation, and time. These elements have been
referred to by using the acronym TARGET (Ames, 1992b; Epstein, 1988).
The choices teachers make about these elements determine the degree
to which an instructional climate is more task- or ego-involving.
Motivational Climates and Children with Disabilities
Because task orientation has been purported to be the best achievement
goal orientation for fostering a high level of motivational behavior
in achievement settings, it is recommended that a task orientation
be fostered for children with disabilities. Teachers and parents among
children with disabilities can manipulate the achievement setting
or environment using the TARGET principles. Specifically, consideration
of each element as described in Figure 1 with the development of learning
environment or achievement setting should foster a task orientation
among children with disabilities.
A high task-involving motivational climate is produced when an evaluations
of the child performance are private and self-referenced and the child
has the opportunity to receive rewards privately. Additionally, the
child should be encouraged to set their own short-term objectives
and permitted to choose the tasks in which they will participate with
the guidance of the person in charger. That is, the child is not simply
told what to do but has some input and control. The child should also
be allowed to set up his or her own equipment and materials (when
safe) and to work independently or in mixed-ability groups. The time
to complete the task should be flexible and relevant to each individual
child.
Conclusion
Learning to create climates that foster task orientation may seem
daunting and is difficult at first. Especially since relinquishing
some degree of control might feel uncomfortable when it is first attempted.
However, if one consistently works to develop climates based on the
TARGET elements, over time the motivational level of the child will
increase.
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