Welcome
to the coaching and sports section of PELINKS4U. In this month's
issue you will be provided with research-based, practical articles.
We believe that research-based studies will promote better understanding
of certain popular issues in coaching and the teaching of sport
skills in this century. Therefore, we would like to share our recent
research efforts in coaching and teaching sports skills.
Article one discusses such an important question about coaching
football "Grip Strength and Upper Body Strength."
Article two provides information about how to teach aquatic play
skills to children with autism, and the results.
Article three provides information about the effects of a least-to-most
prompting procedure on teaching tennis skills to children with autism.
Article four focuses on the effects of constant time delay procedures
on Halliwick's swimming education rotation skills of children with
autism.
And finally, article five emphasizes the role of power in coaching.
We hope you will like this month's research oriented coaching and
sports section, and we wish you a happy and healthy fall semester.
Please do not hesitate to contact us if you have any questions or
suggestions.
Warm Regards from the Republic of Türkiye.
Ferman
Konukman
Coaching & Sports Section Editor
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Grip Strength
and Upper Body Strength!
Bülent Agbuga
M. Sc., Texas A & M University, Department of Health & Kinesiology
Ph.D. Student, College Station, TX - bakboga@yahoo.com
Dr.
Ferman Konukman, Central Washington University, Dept. of Health Human Performance and Recreation, Ellensburg , Washington,
USA - konukmaf@cwu.edu
Dr. İlker Yılmaz
Yilmaz,, Anadolu University, School of PE & Sports, Eskisehir,
TURKEY. ilkery@anadolu.edu.tr
Strength training is an important part of a physical training program.
Not only can it help your muscles become stronger, but it can also
improve tone, appearance, endurance, help you avoid injury, help
you perform your daily activities and improve athletic performance.
Muscular strength is specific to the muscle group being tested,
and so there is no single test available to assess total body muscular
strength (Robergs & Keteyian, 2003). A fair assessment of muscular
strength can be determined by a variety of strength tests.
Athletes' upper body strength is usually measured by the maximum
amount of weight that can be lifted in one repetition maximum, or
a given number of repetitions using free weights or resistance machine.
Measurement of grip strength, however, can be an important part
in muscular strength assessment by providing a quick estimation
of athletes' upper body strength. But, ever wonder if there is a
connection between athletes' grip strength and upper body strength?
Although there are several researches examining the grip strength
of athletes (Giardina et al., 1997, Straub, 1979), the relationship
between grip strength and upper body performance has not been clearly
explained. Then, let’s make it clearer.
In one of our studies, forty-one Division II college football players
performed the grip strength and the One Repetition Maximum (1RM)
test. Participants' grip strength and upper body strength scores
were expressed relative to body weight. The results of One-way ANOVA
showed that there was no significant difference between defensive
players and offensive players' grip strength when scores were expressed
relative to body weight. When their player positions in the field
were statistically analyzed, no significant difference was found
between defensive linemen and offensive linemen and between defensive
and offensive backs in grip strength, respectively.
However, this study found that defensive players were stronger
than offensive players when scores were expressed relative to body
weight by measuring their 1RM. Defensive linemen were stronger than
offensive linemen and defensive and offensive backs were similar
in strength in terms of the 1RM. Although our study suggested that
we could predict upper body strength of college football players
by using grip strength test, the results of the study showed that
this test partially showed the same trends with the 1RM test.
Because this was the one of the few studies to examine relationships
between grip strength and upper body strength in a college football
setting, more research is needed to confirm or refute this finding.
However, by knowing the relationship between grip strength and upper
body strength among player positions, this can be helpful to coaches
in making a fair assessment of players' upper body strength, making
decisions on player positions, and developing training programs
to meet the individual needs of players.
Lastly, do not forget! If you cannot catch the ball you wish, and
if you cannot hold the weight you wish to lift, then what good is
a big biceps? Therefore, we recommend to coaches that their players
also workout their forearms and grip.
references
Giardina, D., Leslie, H., Raridon, L., &
Zimmer, D. (1997). Relationship of grip strength and forearm size
to bat velocity in college female softball players. IAHPERD
Journal 30(2).
Robert
A. Robergs, Steven J. Keteyian. (2003). Fundamentals of Exercise
Physiology: For Fitness, Performance, & Health- 2nd. McGraw
Hill. ISBN: 0-07-255244-1
Straub, W.F. 1979.
Grip strength of college and professional football players. Ergonomics.
22: 1185-1194.
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Character
in Sports - Coaches are among the most influential
people in a young athlete's life. Kids learn more from their coaches
about character than about athletic performance. Here are some tools
to help you seize the character building potential of your sports
program.
How
to Do Character Education - This article first appeared
in the Sept/Oct 2004 issue of Today's School under the
title: "You Are A Character Educator."
The
Virtues Game - Grades 4 - 12. Here's a ten question
quiz that will test the user's sense of virtue on several different
qualities. Also check out the clips.
Each clip sets out a situation or problem and asks the viewer to
decide what reaction or behavior is most virtuous in that instance.
Character
Education Curriculum Resources - The Center for Character
Education at Boston University has created a character education
site that is both successful and apolitical. This page offers a
reading list, information on the Six E’s of character education,
and a large collection of lesson plans and ideas that integrate
character education with other subject areas.
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| If you have
ideas, comments, letters to share, or questions about particular
topics, please email one of the following Coaching Section Editors:
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| This
is a very interesting article, "What
Kids Want in a Coach." Please take a few minutes
to read it.
Then provide feedback, arguments,
and/or suggestions on any of the following areas: What
is most important to you as a coach? Should there be any
importance at all placed on winning? How do you provide
a balance (considering what kids want) to maintain a challenge
to improvement? How and why do you consider yourself to
be, or others consider you to be, a good coach? Please
post in the
forum. |
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Teaching
Aquatic Skills to children with Autism
Dr. İlker Yılmaz, Anadolu University,
School of PE & Sports, Eskisehir, TURKEY - ilkery@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr. Bünyamin Birkan, Anadolu University,
Institute for Handicaped, Eskisehir, TURKEY - bbirkan@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr.
Ferman Konukman, Central Washington University, Dept. of Health Human Performance and Recreation, Ellensburg , Washington,
USA - konukmaf@cwu.edu
Mehmet Yanardağ M. Sc. Adult Mentally
Retarded Women Care & Rehabilitation Center, Eskisehir, Turkey.
Bülent Ağbuga M. Sc., Texas A &
M University, Department of Health & Kinesiology Ph.D. Student,
College Station, TX - bakboga@yahoo.com
Autism is a developmental disability that affects children's behavior
in a ritualistic and compulsive way. Literature states that children
with autism have poor motor skills compared to their non-disabled
peers.
The effects of swimming and aquatic exercises on physical fitness
and well being have been recognized for people with disabilities
(Lepore, 2000). In addition, research shows that children with autism
have positive experiences and behaviors in aquatic exercises (Killian
et al., 1984). Literature shows that a progressive time delay procedure
was an effective way of teaching single and chain behaviors to individuals
with autism, mental retardation, and developmental disorders (Tekin
& Kircali-Iftar, 2001).
Although there have been studies about the effects of a progressive
time delay method in literature, there has been no research specific
to the effects of this procedure on swimming skills of children
with autism. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine
the effects of a progressive time delay method on teaching basic
progressive swimming skills to children with autism.
The experimental design of this study had multiple baselines across
subjects. Participants were three male children with autism, ages
9 years. Data was collected over the course of 4-weeks, with sessions
two times a week. Basic progressive swimming skills were taught
to each subject. The generalization effects were tested via generalization
across settings with pretest/post test design. Generalization sessions
were conducted immediately after the last probe session. Maintenance
sessions were conducted two and four weeks after the instruction
terminated. The results of the study were analyzed via graphic illustrations.
The findings of this study indicated that a progressive time delay
method was an effective instructional procedure on teaching basic
progression swimming skill to children with autism. Moreover, it
is also evident that this procedure was effective on generalization
across settings and maintenance. However, this study has limitations
such as characteristics of participants, tests, and measurements
that were applied. Therefore, further investigations should emphasize
the effects of progressive time delay procedure on different sport
skills and participants.
In addition, we also found that children with autism have better
social skills with their peers and trainers in the pool. We believe
that this is very important, because isolation and difficulty in
social skills are serious and common problems for children with
autism. Therefore, we highly encourage coaches and families to engage
autistic children in aquatic activities under the supervision of
experts.
references
Killian A et al (1984). Measuring water orientation and beginner swim skills of autistic individuals. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 1: 287-295.
Lepore, M. (2000). Aquatics, In: Adapted physical education and sports, J. P. Winnick (Ed.). IL: Human Kinetics.
Tekin,
E., & Kırcaali-İftar, G.
(2001). Özel eğitimde yanlişsiz öğretim yöntemleri
(Errorless learning procedures in special education). Ankara:
Nobel Yayinevi.
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Teaching
Tennis Skills for Children with Autism
Dr. İlker Yılmaz,,
Anadolu University, School of PE & Sports, Eskişehir, TURKEY
- ilkery@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr. Bünyamin Birkan,
Anadolu University, Institute for Handicaped, Eskişehir, TURKEY
- bbirkan@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr.
Ferman Konukman, Central Washington University, Dept. of Health Human Performance and Recreation, Ellensburg , Washington,
USA - konukmaf@cwu.edu
Bülent Ağbuga M. Sc.,
Texas A & M University, Department of Health & Kinesiology
Ph.D. Student, College Station, TX - bakboga@yahoo.com
Children with autism have poor motor skills compared to their non-disabled
peers. In addition, they have severe communication, language, and
social interaction problems in society.
Therefore, teaching games is an essential need and priority to
develop vital social skills in children with autism (Leaf &
McEachin, 1999). Least-to-most prompting procedure provides the
least amount of cue at the beginning, and than more cues provided
within a certain time interval and order (Alberto & Trountman,
1995).
In literature, a statement is made that the least-to-most prompting
procedure was an effective way of teaching single and chain behaviors
to special populations. Although there have been studies about the
effects of least-to-most prompting procedure in literature, there
has been no research specific to the effects of this procedure on
teaching tennis skills to children with autism. Therefore, the purpose
of this study is to determine the effects of least-to-most prompting
procedure on teaching tennis skills to children with autism.
The experimental design of this study was a single subject multiple
probe design, with probe conditions across behaviors. Participants
were four male children with autism, ages 9 years. Data was collected
over the course of 6-weeks, five times a week, an hour per session.
Tennis ball dribble, air dribble, and dribble the lines drills were
taught to each subject. The generalization effects of least-to most
prompting procedure were tested via generalization across settings
with pretest-post test design. Generalization sessions were conducted
immediately after the first and fourth full probe sessions.
Maintenance sessions were conducted two months after the instruction
terminated. The results of the study were analyzed via graphic illustrations.
Results show that least-to-most prompting procedure was an effective
instructional procedure during generalization across settings and
maintenance on teaching tennis skills to children with autism. However,
this study has limitations. Further studies should address the effects
of least-to-most prompting procedure with different games, sports
skills, gender, ages, and child participants with autism.
We believe that tennis is a fun activity to teach and play involving
children with autism. Rackets and tennis balls are fun to play as
well as adequate supervision provided.
references
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (1990).
Applied behavior analysis for teachers. New York: McMillan.
Leaf,
R. & McEaching, J. (1999). A work in progress: Behavior management
strategies and a curriculum for intensive behaviors treatment of
autism. New York: DRL Books.
Tekin, E., & Kırcaali-İftar, G. (2001).
Özel eğitimde yanlişsiz öğretim yöntemleri (Errorless learning procedures in special education). Ankara: Nobel Yayinevi.
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Teaching Halliwick's Swimming Education Rotation Skills
to Children With Autism
Dr. İlker
Yılmaz, Anadolu University, School of PE & Sports, Eskisehir,
TURKEY - ilkery@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr.
Bünyamin Birkan, Anadolu University, Institute for Handicaped,
Eskisehir, TURKEY - bbirkan@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr.
Ferman Konukman, Central Washington University, Dept. of Health Human Performance and Recreation, Ellensburg , Washington,
USA - konukmaf@cwu.edu
Mehmet
Yanardağ M. Sc. Adult Mentally Retarded Women Care &
Rehabilitation Center, Eskisehir, Turkey.
Bülent Ağbuga
M. Sc., Texas A & M University, Department of Health &
Kinesiology Ph.D. Student, College Station, TX - bakboga@yahoo.com
Aquatic exercises provide a unique environment for special populations
(Lepore, 2000). Halliwick's swimming education is a recreational
and rehabilitative program that teaches vertical and lateral rotation
skills in swimming. This program emphasizes freedom and enjoyment
from the water (Martin, 1981). Although there have been studies
about the effects of constant time delay procedures in the literature,
there has been no research specific to the effects of constant
time delay procedures on Halliwick's swimming education for children
with autism.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the effects
of constant time delay procedures on Halliwick;s swimming education
rotation skills of children with autism.
A single subject multiple baseline model across subject design
was used to determine the effects of the intervention. Participants
were three male children with autism, ages 7-9 years, and four
trainers. Data was collected over the course of 10-weeks, with
sessions three times a week. A single opportunity method (Brown
and Snell, 2000) was used to determine the success rate of vertical
and lateral rotation skills. The results of the study were analyzed
via graphic illustrations.
Results show that all subjects increased their correct rotation
skills in a significant amount during the intervention phase.
In addition, subjects maintained their successful rotation skills
during the first, second, and forth weeks of generalization phases.
The results of this study indicates that constant time delay
procedures is an effective way of increasing and maintaining Hallivick's
swimming rotation skills of children with autism. However, this
study has several limitations, such as the characteristics of
participants, tests, and the measurements that were applied. Therefore,
further studies should address the effects of constant time delay
on different play skills, gender, ages and participants of children
with autism.
references
Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (1990).
Applied behavior analysis for teachers. New York: McMillan.
Brown,
F., & Snell, M. E. (2000). Measurement, analysis, and evaluation.
In M. E. Snell & F. Brown (Eds.), Instruction of students
with severe disabilities (5th ed, pp. 173-206). Columbus,
OH: Merrill.
Leaf,
R. & McEaching, J. (1999). A work in progress: Behavior management
strategies and a curriculum for intensive behaviors treatment
of autism. New York: DRL Books.
Lepore, M. (2000).
Aquatics, In: Adapted physical education and sports, J. P. Winnick
(Ed.). IL: Human Kinetics.
Martin,
J. (1981). The Halliwick Method. Physiotherapy, 67(10),
288-291.
Tekin, E., & Kırcaali-İftar,
G. (2001). Özel eğitimde yanlişsiz öğretim yöntemleri
(Errorless learning procedures in special education). Ankara:
Nobel Yayinevi.
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Power
of Coaching
Dr. Hasan Birol Yalçin,
Abant Izzet Baysal University, School
of PE & Sports, Department of Coaching Sciences, Bolu, TURKEY -
E-mail: yhbirol@yahoo.com
Dr.
Bekir Yüktaşır,Abant Izzet Baysal University, School
of PE & Sports, Department of Coaching Sciences, Bolu, TURKEY
- E-mail: byukta@yahoo.com
Sedat
Sönmez M.Sc. Abant Izzet Baysal University, School of PE & Sports,
Department of Coaching Sciences, Bolu, TURKEY - E-mail: Sonmezs2000@yahoo.com
Some leaders are capable
of influencing the members on the basis of power more than others.
This power comes from five different sources; (a) reward power,
(b) coercive power, (c) legitimate power, (d) expert power, and
(e) referent power.
Reward is the extent to which the leader has the control over
valued resources. He/she determine who gets various reward, in
what form, and at what times (Burke, & Johnson, 1992). In
our context, since the coaches generally have control over the
selection of team members who show desire to be part of the team
and activities, coaching may have greater reward power than teaching
(Chelladurai & Kuga, 1996).
On the contrary, participation in physical education is almost
guaranteed by the school system and teacher are supervised by
professional norm of encouraging the participation of all members
in class activities (Chelladurai & Kuga, 1996).
Coercive power is the extent to which the leader has control
over punishment and sanctions (Erchul & Raven, 1997). It is
the ability of the leader to impose punishments of various kind
(e.g., oral reprimands and suspensions in our case) on the members
(Chelladurai & Kuga, 1996). This form of power rests primarily
on fear. If the members do not behave as the leader (who has coercive
power) wishes, they will have to bear consequences in the form
of criticism or assignment of unpleasant tasks.
In teaching and coaching context, Chelladurai and Kuga, (1996)
stated that “ it is not acceptable for a teacher to verbally
punish a student when the student does not execute a skill well.
On the other hand, it is permissible (and often expected) for
a coach to yell and scream at athletes when they perform poorly
“ (pp. 478-479). Thus, the power or impact of such coercive
actions may be greater in coaching than teaching (Chelladurai
& Kuga, 1996).
Legitimate power is the extent to which the members believe that
the leader, who is exercising authority over them, has a legitimate
right to do so. In our case, Chelladurai and Kuga, (1996) suggested
that teachers and coaches might have similar legitimate power
within their respective area of activities because legitimate
power is vested in a position in the organizational hierarchy
and defines the domain of operations in which the leaders can
make decisions for their group members.
Referent power is the extent to which the leader is liked and
admired by the group members. That is, when the members like and
respect or admire the leader, they are often willing to change
their behavior in accordance with the leader’s directives.
In teaching and coaching context, Chelladurai and Kuga (1996)
indicated that coaches may have greater referent power because
of the smaller size of the group, homogeneity of group members
in ability, goal acceptance, longer duration of contact, and intense
interactions between the leader and the members.
Finally, expert power is the extent to which the leader has control
based on knowledge . In other words, expert power refers to the
ability of the leader possessing high level of knowledge, expertise
or experience in his/her respective field to affect the views
or behavior of others with respect to such matters (Chelladurai,
& Kuga, 1996). In our case, Chelladurai et al., (1999) indicated
that since power coaches are considered to be expert in their
respective areas, coaching may foster greater expert power than
teachers.
references
Burke, K. L., & Johnson, J. J. (1992).
The sport psychologist-coach dual role position: A rebuttal to
Ellickson and Brown (1900). Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
4 (1), 51-55.
Chelladurai,
P., & Kuga, D. J. (1996). Teaching and coaching: Group and task
differences. Quest, 48, 470-485.
Chelladurai, P.,
Kuga, D. J., & OBryant, C. (1999). Individual differences, perceived
task characteristics, and preferences for teaching and coaching.
Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 9 (1), 49-57.
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