Welcome to the
October 2004 Coaching & Sports section! This issue is the second
in a series featuring original articles prepared by graduate students
in the Kinesiology department at California State University, Fresno.
As part of a graduate course assignment, the students were asked
to select a coaching or sport topic and provide an overview and
practical suggestions. The students were challenged to integrate
the latest scientific findings with their personal experiences as
coaches, teachers, administrators, athletes, consultants, and /
or officials.
In this month’s issue we are proud to feature four original
and thought-provoking articles focused around the following theme:
“Understanding Motivation in Sports."
We hope you enjoy these feature articles. Please don’t hesitate
to contact us if you would like to comment on these articles or
submit your own ideas for publication.
Wade Gilbert and Jenelle N. Gilbert
Coaching & Sports Section Editors
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How Personality
Affects Motivation and Performance on the Golf Course
- Brian Hoop and Corey Carlson,
California State University,
Fresno
Golf is a unique sport. The individual must rely solely on self
in every aspect of the game. All action is initiated by the golfer;
there is no opponent or teammate to react to or with. As opposed
to other sports, where the playing area remains somewhat constant,
every golf course and round of golf will present the golfer with
challenges never faced before. The uniqueness of the sport demands
special consideration when studying the one who plays it. Personality
plays a much larger role in the performance of golf than other sports.
Through some serious soul-searching, eventually one can learn to
avoid falling into consistent mental traps that play havoc with
your score (O’Brien, 1983).
Personality and Performance
Webster’s dictionary (1990, p. 439) defines personality as,
“distinctive individual qualities of a person, considered
collectively.” Our purpose is to identify individual qualities
that are conducive to motivation and peak golf performance. Golf
coaches can use this information to help each individual golfer
to reach his or her maximum potential.
Personalities can be described in different ways. One test categorizes
people into four groups: analytical, driver, amiable, and expressive
(Kostis, 1983). The analyticals like professional golfer Nick Faldo
are technicians who do everything in a serious, orderly fashion.
The drivers like Tom Kite, rank high in self-control and determination.
On the other end of the scale are the expressives, like Fuzzy Zoeller,
who are less disciplined and more gregarious. The amiables, like
Ben Crenshaw, are characterized by an agreeable and ingratiating
style. Amiables and expressives are the guys who were probably voted
most popular in their senior class, the drivers and the analyticals
were those most likely to succeed. There are champion golfers in
each category; there is no one personality type that makes a better
golfer. Therefore, we must isolate the specific traits that separate
the champion from the non-champion.
In her research, Dr. Deborah Graham identified 8 of 32 personality
traits that separated champion golfers from non-champion golfers.
These traits are focus, abstract thinking, emotional stability,
dominance, tough-mindedness, self-assurance, self-sufficiency, and
optimum arousal (Graham & Stabler, 1999). It is nearly impossible
to perfectly master all of these traits, but by studying them, weaknesses
can be isolated and improved, thereby creating a stronger competitor.
Graham’s book, The 8 Traits of Champion Golfers, is an excellent
resource for young golfers and coaches to utilize for information
about these important golf traits.
In the remainder of this article, we will be reviewing two personality
traits that we feel are the most vital for young athletes, in particular
golfers. These are focus and confidence. These personality traits
are the most basic and can be used at the earliest levels of golf
and extended onto the professional tour.
Focus
Due to the nature of the game of golf, it is difficult to develop
good focus habits. The long periods of time between shots allow
the golfer to create mental situations that are devastating to their
performance. Most golfers have inconsistent focus, at best, because
it is difficult to maintain focus when actual execution is so intermittent.
The best way to combat loss of focus is to develop a sound mental
pre-shot routine. (Coop & Fields, 1993) To be most effective,
the routine should be simple and easy to repeat. Though routines
will vary among golfers, a four- step process is described in the
following paragraphs that can be used as a pattern for developing
your own routine.
The first step is to develop a physical cue that tells the golfer
that it is time to begin the routine. Any small physical cue will
work, such as setting the bag down, adjusting the shirtsleeves,
or putting on the golf glove. Choosing the cue is entirely up to
the individual.
The next step is to do all the calculations. Distance, lie, wind,
elevation, undulation, position of flag stick, location of obstacles,
time of day, and any number of variables all need to be considered.
Do I need a knockdown shot, or should I let it release? Draw or
fade? There are countless variables, but with practice, the evaluation
process should last only seconds. Once a conclusion is reached,
stick to it. Your first instinct is usually correct.
The third step is visualization. When the first two steps are complete,
take a few seconds and visualize the EXACT shot you want to hit.
Picture the trajectory of the ball, the ball flight. Watch it land
and come to rest. Feel yourself swing the club in a perfect arc.
Smell the grass. Hear the birds chirping, the whoosh of the club
at impact, the sound of the club contacting the ball. Use all your
senses to imagine a perfect shot. Believe you can execute that exact
shot. This is probably the most important part of the mental routine,
and should be done with every shot taken, even in practice.
Now you are ready to take the stroke. Address the ball and use
your swing thought. Pick one swing thought to focus on. Phrases
such as “low and slow,” soft hands,” “tempo,”
and “patience” are often used. Phrases should be no
longer that three or four words and are highly personalized. Once
the swing thought is in your mind, execute the swing. Any extra
time allows focus-inhibiting thoughts to creep in.
The four step process allows golfers to move in and out of focus,
as is necessary over the extended period of time it takes to play
a round of golf. Developing a personal routine gives the golfer
the best possible chance to have full focus in executing each individual
golf shot.
Confidence
Legendary golfer Jack Nicklaus stated, “Confidence has to
be the golfer’s greatest single weapon… if he believes
he can get the ball into the hole, a lot of the time he will, even
if his technique appears downright faulty.” Confidence, or
self-assurance, is the key to success in every aspect of life, including
golf. Without confidence, even the most skilled golfer will fail.
It is difficult to strengthen, but it can be done.
Confidence in one’s performance is related to the learning
of skills and the belief that they can be executed. Performance
confidence can vary between tournaments, rounds, and even holes.
Missing an easy putt on the first hole can lead to lack of confidence
on every easy shot for the rest of the round. Conversely, getting
up and down from the garbage can inject a huge boost of confidence
into one’s game. The golfer’s reaction to either of
the situations is a product of their level of performance confidence.
A confident golfer displays the following traits: (a) they dwell
on strengths and focus on variables only within their control, (b)
they refuse to allow self-doubt to inhibit the execution of the
next shot, (c) they focus on the task at hand and block all outside
distractions, and (d) they use only positive reinforcement in their
self-talk (Graham & Stabler, 1999). Golfers who are low in confidence
do not exemplify these traits.
If you have low self-confidence, then there are a few things that
can be attempted to try to restore some confidence in your game.
Affirmations are compliments that you bestow on yourself. Begin
by creating a list of your own affirmations that positively describe
your strengths and good qualities with respect to personality, values,
skill and accomplishments. Golfers should take a few minutes each
day and before each round to review their list. They can choose
at least one item from the list and reflect on some recent evidence
of that strength. Demonstrated ability is a great enhancer of confidence.
Low self-confidence is also reinforced by bad thought patterns.
We have the ability to change these thought habits just at easily
as we can change our physical habits. A thought check every now
and then can help assess your quality of thinking. It is your first
objective to fight every negative thought with a positive one. For
example, if you missed a green because you used the wrong club,
compliment yourself for hitting the shot well and realize if you
had used the right club you would have hit the green. The golfer
can greatly increase their success by getting out of self-talk in
the past tense and instead opt for self-talk that is more positive
and oriented for the future.
Perhaps the best way to develop confidence is to create a swing
you can trust and count on under pressure: “Your ability to
hit reasonably predictable shots is vital to your performance confidence”
(Graham & Stabler, 1999 p.150). It is best to locate a qualified
PGA or LPGA teaching professional you can trust to help you develop
a swing that is right for you. There is no such thing as one perfect
golf swing; however there is a golf swing perfect for you.
Summary
Although there are many personality traits that lend themselves
to creating a motivated and championship golfer, focus and confidence
are two traits most young golfers struggle with. Utilizing the methods
of developing a pre-shot routine, using positive affirmations, changing
thought patterns, and creating a reliable swing will enable you
gain the mental skills that will help you overcome the mental traps
that play havoc with your score. Hopefully this information will
help you lower your scores or help your students become champions.
About the Authors:
Brian Hoop is a personal trainer at In-Shape Health Club in Porterville,
California. He is a graduate student at California State University,
Fresno, in the Kinesiology Department. He can be reached by email
at bhoop84@hotmail.com.
Corey Carlson is a Class A member of the LPGA Teaching and Club
Professional Division and a Certified Golf Fitness Instructor. She
is a graduate student at California State University, Fresno in
the Kinesiology Department She can be reached by email at imagolfer75@hotmail.com.
Bibliography
Beilock, S. L., Afremow, J. A., Rabe, A. L., & Carr, T. H. (2001).
“Don’t miss!” The debilitating effects of suppressive
imagery on golf putting performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 23, 200-221.
Coop, R. & Fields, B. (1993). Mind over golf. New York. Macmillan
publishing.
Graham, D. & Stabler, J. (1999). 8 traits of champion Golfers.
New York. Simon and Schuster
Johnson, P.A. (1983). A comparison of personality traits of superior
skilled women athletes in basketball, bowling, field hockey and
golf. Research Quarterly, 43(4), 409-415.
Kostis, P. (1983). Analytical, driver, amiable, expressive, which
one is the real you? Golf Digest, 34(9), 52-56.
O’Brien, G. (1983). Control your personality. Golf Monthly,
73(8), 99-100.
Sheehan, G. (1978). Three faces of golf. The type of person you
are determines the kind of game you play. Golf Magazine 20(4), 114;117.
Southard, D. & Amos, B. (1996). Rythmicity and preperformance
ritual: Stabilizing a flexible system. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport 67(3), 288-296.
Wiren, G. & Coop, R. (1978). How your personality affects your
game. Golf Digest 29(10), 147; 148; 150; 15.
Woolfolk, R. L., Parrish, M. W. & Murphy, S. M. (1985). The
effect of positive and negative imagery on motor skill performance.
Cognitive Therapy and Research 9(3), 335-341.
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| Athlete Motivation
- Stephanie L. Reeves,
California State University, Fresno
What is it that powers some students around the track while others
simply walk? Do the runners become adults that continue to workout
while the walkers become the obese population? Is there a link with
life long fitness? If this is the case, is it possible to instill
this motivation for physical activity into people or is this something
some are born with while others are not? Many studies have looked
at the effects of various factors and theories on exercise motivation.
My goal is to share these results with you and discuss how they
might be applied to youth physical activity.
If motivation can be taught
then can we as coaches, teachers, and parents teach our children
to be motivated to exercise? If it’s not a matter of teaching
motivation, how do we bring this characteristic out? We all know
that habits taught and practiced early in life become part of our
lifestyles. In 2003, obesity-related ailments cost $75 billion in
medical expenses (Ksimatic, Miller, & Marcussen, 1996). This
is one reason why we need to know how to motivate young people to
be physically active.
Another concern I have deals with how we motivate them. So many
external factors can lead people away from regular physical activity.
These factors range from dietary supplements to drugs to weight
loss gimmicks such as thirty-minute workouts and magical pills.
Aside from companies trying to profit from people’s laziness
there are also companies trying to feed off of people’s weaknesses.
I read an article in our local newspaper, The Fresno Bee, which
said General Mills will continue to test people’s strength
by producing sweets and snacks that are more decadent (The Fresno
Bee, 2004). This along with Super Sized portions and deep fried
fast food are just a few examples of things that get in our way
of promoting a healthy lifestyle. I will provide an overview of
three areas of study that provide insight into motivation: competence,
Protection Motivation Theory, and gender differences in motivation.
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email one of the following Coaching Section Editors: |
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...continued from previous column
Competence
Competence has been shown to be a big determinant of motivation. It
has been found that the more people know about their physical ability,
the activity, proven benefits of the activity or personal control
over the activity the more likely they are to adhere to a physical
activity routine.
Boyd, Weinmann, and Yin (2002) conducted a study that looked at
the relationship between physical competence, sport competence,
and physical strength. They looked at college undergraduate females
enrolled in an aerobic dance class and found that those who felt
they had a better understanding of their physical ability, the activity
at hand, and felt they had moderate levels of physical strength
were more likely to express interest or enjoyment in physical activity.
Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, and Sheldon (1998) found that adherence
was effected by level of enjoyment, competence, and social interaction,
but not related to a focus on fitness or appearance.
Markland (1999) also looked at women participating in aerobics
and found that perceived competence positively influenced intrinsic
motivation only when self-determination is low. Wilson, Rodgers,
Blanchard and Gessell (2004) also found a positive correlation between
more self-determined exercise regulations and competence and autonomy,
which were more positively related to exercise behavior, attitudes,
and physical fitness.
These studies tell us that individuals are more likely to follow
a workout schedule for a prolonged period of time if they feel they
have a good understanding of what they are doing and know that they
are able to complete it. Markland’s findings particularly
interested me because he found that perceived competence was most
effective when self-determination is low. This would mean that the
students that always walk the mile on the track and don’t
put forth any effort to improve their times would benefit most.
This could be applied by possibly teaching them the physiological
benefits of cardiovascular exercise. If they have a better understanding
of why they are being asked to run the mile, along with reinforcement
that they are capable of completing the mile, they would be more
likely to begin putting forth a bit of effort. In my opinion this
suggests that physical education has a place in the classroom as
well as on the field, court, or track. If classroom concepts were
correlated with the activities of physical education the student’s
level of competence would increase which in turn could positively
affect their level of physical activity.
Protection Motivation Theory
The protection motivation theory “is concerned with the decision
to protect oneself from harmful or stressful life events, although
it can also be viewed as a theory of coping with such events”
(Carron, Hausenblas, & Manning, 1996). Fruin, Pratt and Owen
(1991) applied this to exercise perceptions of adolescents. They
found that students who believed exercise would work as prevention
had stronger intentions to exercise. Those who felt exercise wouldn’t
be effective in prevention had less intention to exercise and expressed
hopelessness and fatalism. Again I believe this study shows the
need for the connection between the classroom and physical education.
If the importance and efficacy of exercise is stressed in the classroom,
the students are more likely to apply it to their physical education
courses.
Another study conducted by Plotnikoff and Higgingbotham (1998)
looked at the effects protection motivation theory had on individuals
who had recently suffered from a heart attack to follow a low-fat
diet and exercise regimen. Their study found that self-efficacy
was the greatest predictor for this population. This reiterates
the importance of a sound health education which increases self-efficacy.
Other studies of protection motivation theory have found it to
be effective in promoting precaution strategies. This is when individuals
intend to begin exercise programs even though they don’t have
strong beliefs about its effectiveness. While this is not the most
desirable reaction it could be used as a last resort to get at risk
individuals physically active.
Gender Differences
Finally, two of the studies I looked at investigated the differences
between males and females and their motivation to exercise. Frederick
and Morrison (1996) looked at the differences between men and women
and found that men were motivated to exercise due to body-related
factors while women did so for the skill development and exercise
fulfillment. Horga and Stimac (1999) looked at the differences between
boys and girls and their motivation to exercise. They found that
girls participate in physical activity for the excitement of the
game and improving skills and boys did so for the challenge and
improving their skills.
These two studies seem to make perfect sense to me. Children participate
in activities for competitive reasons, to get better and perform
better. Adults exercise more for external or social reasons. Is
this because they used to be the children who wanted to get better
and perform better and have now moved on to another stage of life
which stills includes physical activity? To me this connection seems
logical. Adults continue to exercise because it’s been a part
of their life, only now their motivation isn’t to perform
better it is to maintain their appearance. Does this mean that in
the end it isn’t the source of motivation that counts but
the fact that it has become a lifestyle?
While no clear connections have been made about how to motivate
children to be physically active in a way that will promote life
long fitness habits we need to try all that we can. We need to stay
current with the research that is taking place in this field. The
nation’s fitness level is so bad that we can’t do any
harm by applying the information these studies have found. I believe
we should try different approaches to physical education and shouldn’t
be afraid to tailor our lessons to each student. This will be more
time consuming in the beginning but I believe we will end up with
more active students in the end. After all that is our aim.
About
the Author:
Stephanie Reeves is a Graduate student at California State University,
Fresno who is pursuing her Master’s Degree in Kinesiology with an option
in Sports Psychology. She can be reached via e-mail at slr35@csufresno.edu
Bibliography
Boyd, M.P., Weinmann, C., & Yin, Z. (2002). The relationship
of physical self-perceptions and goal orientations to intrinsic
motivation for exercise. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25, 1 –
18.
Carron, A.V., Hausenblas, H.A., & Estabrooks,
P.A. (2003). The psychology of physical activity. Health Belief
Model, Protection Motivation Theory, and Physical Activity. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Frederick, C.M., Morrison, C., & Manning,
T. (1996). Motivation to participate, exercise affect, and outcome
behaviors toward physical activity. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
82, 691-701.
Fruin, D.J., Pratt, C., & Owen, N. (1991).
Protection motivation theory and adolescents’ perceptions
of exercise. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 55-69.
Horga, S., & Stimac, D. (1999) Why do
children exercise? Evaluation of the motivation inventory. Kinesiology,
31, 61-67.
Kasimatic, M., Miller, M., & Marcussen,
L. (1996). The effects of implicit theories on exercise motivation.
Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 510-516.
Lee, T. (March 8, 2004). General Mills banks
on indulgence. The Fresno Bee. B5.
Markland, D. (1999). Self-Determination
moderates the effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation
in an exercise setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology,
21, 351-361.
Obesity-related ailments cost $75 billion
in 2003. (2004). Knight Rider Newspapers. The Fresno Bee
Plotnikoff, R. C., & Higginbotham, N.
(1998). Protection motivation theory and the prediction of exercise
and low-fat diet behaviors among Australian cardiac patients. Psychology
and Health, 13, 411-429.
Ryan, R.M., Frederick, C.M., Lepes, D.,
Rubio, N., & Sheldon, K.M. (1998). Intrinsic motivation and
exercise adherence. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28,
335-354.
Wilson, P.M., Rodgers, W.M., Blanchard,
C.M., & Gessell, J. (2004). The relationship between psychological
needs, self-determined motivation, exercise attitudes, and physical
fitness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 2373-2392.
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Sport Officials: Tips for Sustaining Motivation through Confidence and Communication
- Luke Lichtenwaldt,
California State University, Fresno
With six seconds remaining on the game clock and the score tied,
a basketball team quickly brings the ball up the court for a last
second shot. While driving to the basket, a player from the visiting
team is fouled while shooting with 0.3 seconds left. The crowd
erupts, the coach jumps up, and it seems that chaos has taken
over the arena. Both free throws made and the home team loses
the game by two in the state championship. The next day, everyone
in town is talking about how the referee was responsible for the
loss the night before. This, however, is all in a days work for
the sport official, who is, perhaps, the most hated and under
appreciated person in sport. The most successful officials are
probably taking a page from the book of sport psychology. Sport
psychology and the tools it provides have recently shown great
interest, and been extremely helpful, among athletes of all caliber.
The sport official could benefit from the many tools this field
has to offer.
There are many important psychology skills utilized by today’s
premier officials. In fact, there are too many to mention for
the purposes of this article. I have chosen two topics that I
feel are of great importance to any official: confidence and communication.
Confidence
It is easy to look at some people and say to yourself, “That
person has confidence.” The way they walk, the way they
talk, the way they handle themselves in every situation; everything
about them exudes confidence. In the world of the sport official
this is an essential quality. Coaches and athletes in all sports
have long recognized that teams do not win, and athletes do not
perform well, without confidence. Confidence in your ability is
of the utmost importance in all areas of sport, especially officiating,
but what is confidence and how do we get it?
Dr. Bob Rotella (1995) offers a great amount of useful and practical
information regarding the topic of confidence and pressure—two
areas that every official must be well schooled in if he or she
intends to become a top-level referee.
Confidence is not an unattainable goal that only experts can
reach. It is not something that some people are born with and
all others are left to their own devises. Confidence can be worked
at and is something that all people can experience. Super Bowl
champion coach, Bill Parcells, was recently quoted as saying,
“Past success breeds confidence.” All it takes is
one successful experience to begin building your confidence. For
instance, in officiating it is practical to begin by officiating
lower level competition where pressure to succeed is minimal.
Once a successful performance has been established at this level,
it can transcend to many other situations—situations that
may or may not be new to the official. This is where confidence
begins to be built. What happens, however, if one begins to lose
confidence?
 When doubt, fear, or some other extraneous factor distracts a
person, he is preparing himself to choke. When a golfer’s
focus centers on missing a putt or hitting an errant drive, or
an official focuses on missing a crucial foul (or non-foul), then
confidence has been lost and “choking” has set in.
Choking will not only open the door to a missed call, but if one
lets emotions get in the way when handling a confrontation with
a coach or player a much bigger problem could occur. Choking occurs
when one is not confident in himself—when the official is
focused on things that can go wrong instead of knowing that he
is capable of making things go right. Every official is going
to make a bad call, but these missed calls should not be considered
a reflection of potential and ability. Confidence that it will
not happen, again, is key.
What is a way to avoid choking and remain confident? By focusing
your mind not on what you may do wrong in your upcoming performance,
but rather solely at the task at hand. In golf, if one is focused
solely on making a putt and is not thinking about what is going
to happen if he misses the putt, then that person has greatly
increased his or her percentage to make that putt. In the case
of basketball, if a referee is focused solely on what he or she
is supposed to be looking for at a particular moment in a game,
then the chances of choking decreases and having a productive
performance greatly increases.
There is a distinction between choking and being nervous. Being
nervous is perfectly acceptable, normal, and usually a good thing
when dealing with sport. Being nervous can help one focus on the
task at hand and not let his mind wander because he is over confident.
NBA great Bill Russel, winner of 11 championships during his 13-year
career, was said to have thrown up before every game he played
because he was so nervous. It is comforting to know that even
the greatest athletes in the world get nervous. These great athletes
do not let their nervousness translate into a lack of confidence,
however. They embrace their nervous feelings while remaining extremely
confident—something every official should strive for.
Communication
Ask any relationship councilor what he or she thinks is the single
most important issue facing couples today and they undoubtedly
will list communication at or near the top of their list. This
is because communication is the only way that to be sure that
two people know what each other are thinking and what they mean.
Communication takes the guesswork out of any situation and replaces
it with cold, hard facts. These facts are the building blocks
to a stronger and more successful relationship. A relationship
between a referee and a coach is not unlike a relationship between
a man and his wife—the two get angry at each other at times,
but with proper communication they can work through any problem.
It is of major importance that the sport
official is able to communicate clearly with the players, coaches,
and fans. If there is a break in this communication, even a perfect
ruling can be interpreted as a missed call. The official, in order
for spectators to understand the situation, must also administer
the connection between a ruling and the reason for that ruling.
If no connection is made, those watching the game are left with
gaps in their understanding and unfortunate situations can result.
It is almost as if an official is an actor on the court performing
for the audience. If the actor in a play does not give a reason
for his actions, audience members might leave the performance
with an incomplete understanding of what they just watched. Such
is the case with sport. In sport, unlike a play, things can turn
sour very quickly with an unruly crowd, especially a crowd who
is ‘left in the dark.’
Many veteran officials use a process known as “footnoting.”
Footnoting involves a running description of events taking place
on the floor in much of the same manner as a radio commentator
broadcasting the game (Askins, Carter, & Wood, 1981). This
method not only helps to insure a common experience between the
coach, player, and fan, but it also minimizes the possibility
of misunderstanding of the meanings of formal signals when they
are given. For instance when making a call, a basketball referee
might call out, “No! That’s two steps before you dribbled.
We’ve got traveling!” Using this method helps to keep
everyone on the same page, regardless of whether they agree or
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Officials must also realize that on top of interacting with the
players and the coaches, they are also interacting with the crowd.
The crowd, coaches, and players, all deserve to know what is going
on and it is the official’s responsibility to demonstrate
those reasons, to the best of his or her ability, to them. This
is a catch twenty-two situation for officials. On one hand officials
are taught to be invisible. On the other hand they are supposed
to be actors in a grand play. Finding a way to be both inconspicuous
as well as apparent is essential for sporting officials to succeed
at the highest levels.
Communication is important in every aspect of officiating. Whether
it be with your partner, a coach, or the scorekeepers, communication
must be handled effectively. Communication skills can be enhanced
by understanding how you are communicating, seeking feeding, and
using imagery. In order to know what you need to improve on, you
must know where you are coming from. This can be done with either
a video recorder or by recording situations in a logbook after
a game. Seeking feedback from other officials is also critical.
Did they see anything you could have handled differently? Finally,
it is important to imagine a stressful situation in your head
and play out how you will react to it. When you are faced with
a similar situation in a contest, you will be prepared.
With these skills you should now be better prepared to face the
upcoming game or season. Using them can only help improve your
performance.
About
the Author:
Luke Lichtenwaldt is a graduate student at California State University,
Fresno. He has officiated volleyball, basketball, and baseball
up to the college level. You can reach Luke at lukeduke@csufresno.edu
Bibliography
Askins, R.L, Carter, T.J., & Wood, M. (1981). Rule enforcement
in a public setting: The case of basketball officiating. Qualitative
Sociology, 2, 87-101.
Benson, H., & Proctor, W. (1984).
Beyond the relaxation response. New York: Berkley.
Burke, K.L. (1997). Communication in sports:
Research and practice. Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in
Physical Education, 2, 39-52.
Carnagie, D. (1990). How to win friends
and influence people. New York: Pocket Press.
Rotella, Bob (1995). Golf is not a game
of perfect. New York: Simon & Schuster.
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Influence of Degree of Religiosity on Sport Commitment
- Mary-tyler Wahl,
California State University, Fresno
The purpose of this article is to explore how the degree of religiosity
can play a role in athletics; more specifically, sport commitment.
I had the opportunity to play collegiate soccer for four years
at California State University, Fresno. My team was very diverse
religiously, ranging from individuals who believed in nothing,
to those who believed in many Gods, or one God. Those individuals
who were deeply rooted in their faith had a completely different
perception of their athletic career. They were able to cope with
adversities, such as, playing time, statistics, and player conflicts,
in a better and less stressful way than those individuals who
did not believe or were lukewarm about their faith.
Religion has become a hot debate in schools recently. While the
government debates whether or not the phrase “under God”
is appropriate for the pledge of allegiance, some athletes continue
to bow their heads before games and cross themselves before they
exit the field. Some praise a God(s) after winning.
Bethany Hamilton is a 14-year old surfer in Hawaii. She was attacked
by a shark and lost all but four inches of her right arm. She
is nationally ranked in her sport and still competes despite what
happened. She is using her accident as a testimony to her Christian
faith. Amazingly, she remains committed and has become an inspiration
for many other surfers, both young and old.
Michelle Akers has a similar story. She has had 13 knee surgeries
and has played the better part of her soccer career with chronic
fatigue syndrome, a disease that attacks the immune system and
leaves one constantly tired. Even medical studies have begun to
explore prayer as an aide for healing in physically sick patients.
Recovery rates found in patients who received prayer have led
practitioners to take courses in prayer.
In the face of my own experiences and all those I have heard
about, it begs the question, can a higher power have influence
on sport? Specific to my problem, does belief in a God(s) influence
sport commitment? How does an athlete’s degree of religiosity
influence their commitment to their career?
Roles of Religion in Athletics
Most of the research does not directly investigate religious
or spiritual components and sport commitment. However, religious
components have been rearing their heads in studies about coping
and team cohesion among athletes.
One particular study looked at the U.S. Olympic Wrestling Team
and found that prayer was a way in which athletes controlled their
thoughts. The study found that the athletes used many strategies
to cope with stress during the Olympic Games. One of these ways
was thought control, which includes positive thinking and prayer.
Prayer is a component of religion. Even though many wrestlers
were not religious, they still participated in a religious activity.
Religion has also played a role in team cohesion. In a study
by Turman (2003), male and female athletes were interviewed to
find what motivational tactics coaches use to motivate and demotivate
athletes. After assessing these techniques, researchers sought
to determine if they promoted or deterred team cohesion. Tactics
to promote team cohesion included bragging of abilities by the
coach, motivational speeches, quality of opponent, athlete directed
techniques (spending time together off the field), and team prayer.
Again, prayer is a component of religious behavior. An athlete
in the study indicated that it was only through team prayer that
all the athletes were able to put differences aside and come together
in a common purpose. Team prayer was used pre-game and post-game
as a technique to help develop and maintain cohesion. The researchers
said, “…the team prayer became the primary force that
allowed a connection of all the other various strategies”
(Turman, 2003, p. 99). It allowed all other motivational techniques
that promoted team cohesion to fall into place. Basically it is
saying that prayer is the foundation of team cohesion, that without
it, nothing else would fall into its proper place. This is powerful,
considering all the variables that influence cohesiveness of a
team.
Athletes have been found to be more religious than non-athletes.
Recent research defines three different types of religion: intrinsic,
organizational, and non- organizational. Intrinsic religiosity
is defined as the degree to which a person integrates religion
into their lives. Organizational religiosity is the frequency
which one attends religious services. Non-organizational religiosity
is the amount of time a person spends in private religious practices,
like prayer or meditation. Intrinsic and non-organizational religion
was found to be higher in athletes than in non-athletes.
In discussing these results, researchers speculated that the
idea that athletes are more religious may be attributed to the
idea that religion is an avenue that athletes use to deal with
pressures, injury, and uncertainty in athletics. It is also speculated
that these results might be so because it requires a certain amount
of discipline to be an athlete, and that same discipline is required
of a person that is religious.
Scanlan’s Sport Commitment Model
There has been much interest in commitment levels of athletes.
Commitment in sport is defined as the psychological state representing
desire or resolve to continue sports participation. Sport commitment
is influenced by many factors. The Sport Commitment Model (SCM)
offered by Scanlan et al (1993) maintains that there are five
components to the sport commitment model. They are (1) sport enjoyment
(positive response to sport and accompanies feelings of fun);
(2) involvement alternatives (other alternatives to playing the
sport); (3) personal investments (resources that cannot be recovered);
(4) social constraints (obligation to sport); and (5) involvement
opportunities (opportunities present only through continued involvement).
Even within these factors, many other things influence how they
operate in an athlete. For example, self-efficacy and positive
outlook have an impact on sport enjoyment. One could debate; however,
if self-efficacy is developed through involvement or if involvement
is a result of self-efficacy.
Certain aspects of the model are positively correlated with sport
commitment and others are negatively correlated. Those factors
that are positively correlated with sport commitment have a positive
effect on commitment levels. If an athlete invests or feels that
these play a role in their motivation to play, they will be more
committed. Those factors that are negatively correlated with sport
commitment infer that motivation for these activities will lessen
the degree of sport commitment in an athlete. Involvement alternatives
are negatively correlated with sport commitment. As mentioned
earlier, involvement alternatives are activities other than the
sport being participated in that are available to the athlete.
For example, church or social life is viewed as an involvement
alternative that can be more attractive than playing the sport
involved in.
 If the latter statement is true, then religious athletes could
possibly be less committed than athletes that do not practice
a faith because religion can be an involvement alternative. However,
research by Wendt (2000) states that Christians are motivated
not by a win/ loss record, but by the idea that their sport involvement
can act as a testimony of God’s faith to others. Peoples
of other monotheistic denominations claim that it was their calling
to pursue athletics. Therefore, athletes that are devout in faith
do not see religion as an involvement alternative but more as
a social constraint. The athlete might feel obligated to pursue
a career in their sport to continue witnessing to their peers
in their particular discipline. However, the motivation to feel
obligated to play is not regulated by expectations or norms but
by the belief that they are a walking testimony of their faith.
The degree to which an athlete is religious could play a role
in this area of the sport commitment model. An athlete that is
religious to a lesser degree than teammates might not feel the
same convictions to play for faith or be used as a witnessing
tool.
Religion and Sport Commitment: Is it Related?
Religion is not something one does. It shapes one’s beliefs,
morals, and faith. Because of it, it touches literally every area
of someone’s life that is devout in his or her faith. It
is my own experience and hypothesis that religion can so influence
an athlete that it can determine sport commitment levels.
I am not promoting the idea that those that need more commitment
should find a religion. There are many things one can do to increase
sport commitment:
Do not take yourself too seriously. Remember why you began to
play in the first place – it was fun.
Get to know your teammates on a more intimate level. Go to lunch
between games together or hang out over the weekend. Talk about
more than just your sport.
Throw out the negative and recite the positive into your life.
Do not dwell on lost games or poor coaching, but remember and
dwell on those things that are good, like wins, or fun experiences
at practices.
Much of my experience in sport depended largely on my own philosophy.
Any philosophy of life can be applied to the SCM, but different
philosophies will lead to different commitment levels. Every component
of the sport commitment model is unstable. Sport enjoyment is
dependent upon confidence and performance. Involvement opportunities
require a rewards system, either internal or external for continued
involvement. These all can change because they rely upon emotion
rather than personality. Personality does not change dramatically
in an individual. There are parts of it that can be “tweaked,”
but it is a fairly constant variable. External forces that can
change at any moment influence all the variables of the SCM. Perhaps
faith or belief in a God(s) can be a more constant variable in
an athlete’s life. Because religion affects so many other
parts of a person, maybe the consistency of faith or belief that
there is something more out there can provide stability for an
athlete in the face of so many unknowns. Even further, if it determines
all the other components of a person, like confidence, esteem,
focus, then how could it not effect sport commitment positively
or negatively?
About
the Author:
Mary-tyler Wahl is a graduate student at California State University,
Fresno with a Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology and can be reached at mtwahl@yahoo.com.
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