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The definition of cerebral palsy,
according to Winnick (2005), is "a
group of permanent disabling symptoms
resulting from damage to the motor control
areas of the brain. It is a non-progressive
condition that manifests itself in a
loss or impairment of control over voluntary
musculature."
The effects of cerebral palsy on the
body can vary greatly from child to
child. Instruction, therefore, must
be adapted to each student regardless
of ability, and students in walkers
and wheelchairs should not be excluded.
Creating a well balanced program that
fosters self-esteem and teamwork, while
emphasizing the strengths of each child,
is essential. The coach of students
with cerebral palsy is advised to include
children of all abilities in one class,
dividing the students by age instead.
A student with severe cerebral palsy
can participate even minimally, and
when paired with a student with mild
cerebral palsy, the two can learn from
each other. As long as the team is non-competitive,
the makeup of the class is of no consequence.
In the case of a competitive league,
it is preferable that the teams be balanced
in the numbers of ambulatory and non-ambulatory
players as well as in the number of
affected limbs. While all children with
cerebral palsy can benefit from any
exercise program, how physically involved
the individual is will determine how
an effective program should be set up.
Due to the nature of cerebral palsy,
safety should be considered first and
foremost. This includes the type of
ground where play will take place, as
well as the type of ball used if the
coach will be teaching heading. Once
all safety considerations have been
made, the next step is to decide what
to teach.
When considering the most effective
way to coach students with cerebral
palsy in soccer, the key is planning.
The coach must take into account that
teaching any sport is more than just
the rules of the game. In this or any
team sport, not only will the child's
body be exercised, but so will the mind.
The coach must also keep in mind that
the child with cerebral palsy faces
a unique set of challenges in how his
or her body functions. The individual
with this special need also has a particular
view of the world and himself/herself
as they relate to the world. According
to Applied Special Physical Education
and Exercise Therapy (Stopka &
Todorovich 2005), the most effective
method to creating an appropriate program
for the individual with special needs
is to organize five major developmental
objectives (organic, neuromuscular,
interpretive, social and emotional)
in such a way that they address all
aspects of the mind and body.
To reach the goal of mind/body harmony,
the design of a program must take into
account these five developmental objectives.
The recommendation for a well balanced
soccer program for school-aged children
with cerebral palsy is to place the
objectives in the following order: social,
emotional, neuromuscular, organic and
interpretive. These objectives, followed
in this order of importance, work together
to form an atmosphere where children
feel accepted, develop in their physical
fitness abilities, and learn how to
play the game.
The social objective consists of learning
to communicate with others, the development
of the social phases of personality,
as well as development of attitude that
reflects good moral character. This
objective is the primary point to consider
in this kind of soccer program. The
basis for this program is to allow children
with similar disabilities to be able
to exchange ideas, show off their abilities,
and help each other. Because children
receive feedback about their abilities
from their peer group (Santrock 1995),
it is recommended that the children
be grouped by age rather than ability.
It is imperative to create an environment
were success is inevitable.
The soccer coach should create drills
and exercises that allow the players
to interact with each other. Ideally,
these drills will also improve soccer
skills. One such drill can be found
in Awesome
Elementary School Physical Education
Activities. The drill "Circle
Soccer" places all the players
in a circle, with half of the circle
as one team, and the other half as the
other. A point is scored when the ball
travels past a player at shoulder height
or lower. Players can block or trap
the ball with all body parts except
the hands and arms. The variation offered
with this activity is to join hands
while playing. The physical ability
of each child taken into consideration,
this activity could be a great way for
the students to depend on each other,
both physically and through communication.
It has been suggested that children
with cerebral palsy may lack in language
development or problem-solving skills
due to a lack of opportunities to participate
in activities that promote those skills
(Greenspan 1998). A high-quality soccer
program will include skill-based instruction
that provides opportunities for the
child to grow in these areas.
Equally important is the emotional
objective. This objective is defined
as "a healthy response to physical
activity through a fulfillment of basic
needs" (Stopka & Todorovich
2005). It includes creating an outlet
of self expression and creativity, releasing
tension through suitable physical activities,
and the ability to have fun. As children
grow, their peers become an important
source for how they view themselves.
How they evaluate their self-concept
also comes from the adults in their
lives, including coaches. As mentioned
with the social domain, it is crucial
to create an atmosphere where each child
can express himself, release tension,
and simply have fun without fear of
judgment or failure.
Structure in the program is vital,
but within this structure, many types
of activities need to be presented.
This will not only keep the routine
from becoming boring, but will also
allow the athlete to have many opportunities
to do well. There will be activities
that some students will not be able
to perform proficiently. However, when
given the chance to try many different
activities, each child should discover
something he can do with ease and good
capability. To achieve this, it is suggested
that each training session begin with
a warm up, a review of previously learned
skills, a variety of activities to practice
the new skill, a modified scrimmage,
and a cool-down/reflection time. The
new skill needs to be presented with
various equipment and many different
ways to accomplish the same purpose.
For example, heading can be taught
with balloons, beach balls, and foam
balls. The students can be standing
or sitting. As long as the concept of
touching a ball to the head is presented,
there is no limit to how it can be taught.
It is also recommended that children
be allowed to be peer-coaches. Without
taking all control away from the adult,
the children can assist each other in
executing skills, and could even be
given an assignment of creating a mini-lesson
to share with the class. If using the
mini-lesson assignment, the students
should be given advanced notice of when
they will present, but the topic is
best chosen by them. If the child cannot
come up with a topic, the adult can
make suggestions based on the strengths
seen in the child. For this project,
the child could present a new activity,
teach how he or she improved in a skill
presented in an earlier practice, or
show an activity they do at home to
maintain their skills. While planned
activities in a structured routine are
the basis of a good soccer program,
the coach must never forget the reason
for being there: to have fun (and for
love of the game).
After the social and emotional objectives
are covered, it is then time to consider
the neuromuscular objective which deals
with the function of the muscular and
nervous systems to produce desired movements.
This objective consists of six sets
of skills: locomotor, non-locomotor,
game type fundamentals, motor factors,
sport skills, and recreational skills.
For the purpose of a soccer program
for children with cerebral palsy, recreational
skills do not need to be addressed,
and only the sports skill of soccer
will be focused on. All locomotor (i.e.
walking, skipping, hopping) and non-locomotor
(i.e. twisting, stretching, bending)
skills can be introduced during practice,
and all activities should include a
balance of both.
The game of soccer naturally lends
itself to the game type fundamental
skills of kicking, catching (goalie),
starting, stopping, throwing (goalie
and throw-in from the sidelines) and
changing direction. Locomotor and non-locomotor
skills are basic to the fundamental
skills, and should be used when breaking
down a skill. Soccer:
Steps to Success is an excellent
resource for the soccer coach. Each
skill is presented with step-by-step
instructions that include words like
extend, crouch, accelerate, flex, snap
and bend. It would be beneficial to
initially teach the players such locomotor
and non-locomotor words separate from
the game skills, then put them together
as part of the game skill. Soccer:
Steps to Success also gives a "success
check" with each drill, as well
as how to increase and decrease the
difficulty of each skill. Decreasing
the difficulty can be of particular
advantage for students with severe motor
difficulties. At the same time, some
students could use increased difficulty.
This book includes an "error"
and "correction" feature that
assists the coach in troubleshooting
and fixing specific difficulties in
following through on a skill.
Because of its easy approach to teaching
and correcting all soccer skills, Soccer:
Steps to Success is highly recommended.
However, it is not the only resource
for teaching soccer, and any resource
that presents soccer skills in an easy-to-understand
method and demonstrates how to modify
difficulty should be used. No
Standing Around in My Gym and Awesome
Elementary School Physical Education
Activities also present soccer lead-up
activities, as well as variety of balance,
cooperation, body awareness and movement
exploration activities. The only activities
that should not be provided in the soccer
program are those contraindicated for
cerebral palsy, such as those that increase
flexor spasticity or aggravate inward
rotation of joints. Success will be
achieved when the coach uses a variety
of teaching methods that address the
needs of the individual while constantly
considering any contraindications.
To maintain skills and increase fitness,
the organic domain can be addressed
next. Consisting of muscle strength,
muscle endurance, cardiovascular endurance,
and flexibility, the organic objective
should be integrated into the soccer
program. Flexibility can be incorporated
into the warm-ups to get the muscles
ready to move. The Proprioceptive
Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)
technique of stretching is highly recommended.
This method of stretching is easy to
accomplish, and has many advantages
including, but not limited to, increased
flexibility and preparing muscles for
sports activities.
All of the PNF stretches found in Ultra-stretch
can be used in a soccer program, but
if time is a factor, the most benefit
stretches to soccer are Stretch 1: Peroneal,
Stretch 3: Hamstring/Low Back, Stretch
4: Straddle, Stretch 5: Butterfly, Stretch
6: Hip Extensor, Stretch 7: Internal
Gluteus, Stretch 9: Quadriceps, and
Stretch 10: Hip Flexor. These are stretches
that should be included with every practice,
though including stretches of the arms
and neck is advised.
Awesome
Elementary School Physical Education
Activities presents endurance activities
that can be assimilated into a soccer
program. These include exercising in
place to music, circuit training, and
obstacle courses. All of these can be
done with soccer balls, balloons, or
beach balls. The "Super Rubberband
Activities" presented in this same
book are also good for endurance and
strength building. Because weight training
is not recommended for prepubescent
players (Martens 1981), the aforementioned
activities are preferred to accomplish
strength training. When focusing on
the organic domain it is important to
be patient. Sport psychologist Ned Fredrick
described training as "a
gentle pastime in which we coax subtle
changes from the body." This
explanation is a reminder that rushing
training can lead to injury.
The remaining domain is the interpretive.
With this domain, the rules of the game,
strategies, and techniques are taught.
Teaching these aspects of soccer is
postponed until the other four developmental
objectives are addressed, because they
are inconsequential in a program for
students with cerebral palsy. This program
is created to teach skills rather than
competition. While it is suggested that
the students participate in short scrimmages
at the end of each training session,
it is the socialization, building of
self-confidence and putting into practice
the skills learned that are most important.
As the children mature, more emphasis
can be placed on competition, but never
at the expense of enjoying the activities
and developing positive fitness habits.
It is appropriate to teach the rules
of soccer throughout the course, as
soccer has some very specific rules
that must be followed. The use of no
hands is a prime example, and many of
the drills will center on the use of
the feet, legs, chest, and head as the
means by which to trap and pass the
ball. However, even this basic rule
of soccer needs to be overlooked when
the student is starting out, or when
specific limitations would otherwise
keep the child from participating with
his or her peers. When a team can be
assembled to participate in a competitive
league based on the abilities of the
players, more importance can be placed
on the rules and strategies of soccer.
To gauge the readiness of the athlete
for serious competition, the coach will
have to decide if the child has good
self-esteem, is emotionally ready, and
understands personal achievement is
favorable to beating an opponent (Sherrill
2004). Additionally, it must be noted
that competitive sports often creates
anxiety, so the adult must coach in
such a way that anxiety is reduced.
If some students are ready to move to
competitive soccer, asking the other
players to attend games can be a great
opportunity to learn about being a spectator
and be exposed to socialization off
the field. Coaching Young Athletes repeats
a phrase throughout the book: "Athletes
First, Winning Second." This is
a good mantra for the coach of athletes
with cerebral palsy, whether mild, moderate
or severe.
The United States has seen an increase
in the interest in soccer, particularly
with the addition of international players
like Cuauhtemoc
Blanco and David
Beckham to Major League Soccer.
In response to this surge in interest,
it is prudent to create a soccer program
that addresses the needs of the player
with cerebral palsy so as not to leave
these individuals out of playing this
popular sport. To create such a program,
the soccer coach needs to consider the
social, emotional, neuromuscular, organic,
and interpretive objectives of development.
Using these objectives in this particular
order will allow for the most efficient
implementation of a curriculum in which
the mind and body of each child is exercised.
references
- Carnes, Cliff. (1983) Awesome
Elementary School Physical Education
Activities
- Greenspan, Stanley, M.D. and Serena
Wieder, Ph.D. (1998) The
Child with Special Needs.
Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing
- Hughes, J.D. (2003) No
Standing Around in My Gym.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
- Luxbacher, Joseph. (1996) Soccer:
Steps to Success. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics.
- Martens, Rainer, Robert Christina,
John Harvey, Jr. and Brian Sharkey
(1981) Coaching
Young Athletes. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics.
- Santrock, John W. (1995) Children.
Dubuque, IA: WCB Brown & Benchmark.
- Sherrill, Claudine (2004) Adapted
Physical Activity, Recreation and
Sport. New York, NY: McGraw
Hill.
- Stopka, Christine and Christopher
Follenius. (1996) Ultra-stretch.
Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing.
- Stopka, Christine and John Todorovich
(2005). Applied Special Physical
Education and Exercise Therapy 4th
Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom
Publishing
- Winnick, Joseph (2005) Adapted
Physical Education and Sport.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
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