IMAGERY USE IN BASEBALL
by Robbie Kirven

When we think of sports our traditional approach usually involves the physical first. This most often results in individuals placing blinders on that exclude the mental aspects of the games we love to play. Our society seems to put a stigma on the notion that gaining a mental edge from some outside source presents a softer side that we would not like anyone, much less our opponent, to see. As time goes by and athletes of historic nature are discovered and researched, our society is coming to the realization that these athletes are more than the physical. They are a combination of the mind and body, with strategies involving the mind acting as beneficial supplements to the body and its physical skills.

Baseball is one of the sports that most attribute to physical skills, often overlooking the mental aspect of the game. This may, in part, be due to the extensive conditioning necessary to play baseball well. The conditioning shapes the players to believe that arm strength, power, hitting, and agility are the most important factors required to be an elite participant. While it is true that all of these factors are at the core of being an elite performer, how a player mentally prepares to perform these factors is also crucial. Mental training is required to take these physical talents and make the most of them.

Imagery is a mental skill that is often used in an incomplete way because the user is only aware of it in a general sense and has not been trained on imagery methods. Defrancesco and Burke (1997) reported that imagery was one of the most common mental strategies used by both male and female professional tennis players (Peluso, Ross, Gfeller, & LaVoie, 2005). "Imagery is simply not relaxation or a cure for poor skill. Rather, it is an active process that heightens one's concentration, focus, arousal regulation, and attempts to eliminate maladaptive cognitions and behavior." (Peluso et al., 2005, p. 543). It is a mental practice accomplished in one's mind. It is the preparation in pre-game, the performance during, and the reflection after that is a vision from either an internal or external perspective.

Internally, it is practiced as if you are viewing the skill from a first person perspective. In other words, you are seeing the skill performed as you would during the real competition or game. Externally, imagery is practiced as if you are viewing a video or highlight film of yourself performing the skill. I think this is very important when imagery is first realized as a mental skill because it can make a difference in the vividness of self-practiced imagery, and also whether or not you might think of yourself as kinesthetic or visual in your imagery techniques. Fery and Morizot (2000) found that kinesthetic imagery is more effective than visual imagery in performance of a closed skill, such as a tennis serve, where timing is paramount. They say this is because the body is the central figure as the generator of force. (Fery, 2003). Imagery can be used in many contexts and in various ways to enhance performance.

In the ensuing paragraphs, I will examine how imagery and baseball can be linked together to improve baseball performance. Because baseball has a lot to do with timing in both offense and defensive skills, I want to look further into the kinesthetic aspects of imagery and why this approach might be more helpful in enhancing performance. Next, the factors that influence the effectiveness of imagery will be discussed in regards to situational and personal factors. Finally, I would like to touch on the various theories on how imagery works and discuss which of those theories might work best to enhance baseball performance.

When I look back on my experience in baseball, particularly in high school and college, and think about the type of task that I imaged, it most usually occurred when I was scheduled to pitch. I used an internal perspective of imagery in order to see the pitch cross the plate as I would see it from the pitcher's mound. In my mind, preparing to pitch seemed to require more preparation for the "who, what, when, and how" of pitching of a particular batter or lineup. Some research suggests that mental practice may be effective only for tasks that involve cognitive circumstances, whereas it may be ineffective for physical tasks.

On the other hand, other research suggests that mental practice is effective for both cognitive and physical tasks (Driskell, Copper, & Moran, 1994). In either case, pitching is much more than just going out and throwing the ball accurately across the plate. It involves knowing who is at bat and what strengths and weaknesses they possess. It involves being prepared for particular situations that may arise dealing with base runners and the number of outs. It involves the number of balls and strikes that are accumulated on the batter, and how you should pitch accordingly in order to execute in a favorable manner for the team. These are some of the factors that can be part of imagery in order to visualize and prepare for the inevitable, and sometimes unexpected, events that happen during the course of a game. With the use of imagery you can prepare for these events, and most likely gain favorable results, because you have imagined these situations in your mind and are now ready to transfer them into a physical real life setting.

When I played centerfield in high school, I used the imagery technique of practicing knowing what to do with the ball when it was hit to me. Again, this called for some type of cognitive thought in strategy. I recall how retention was affected by the interval between visualizing how I would handle the ball and actually doing it. As you might expect, as the retention interval lengthens the effect of mental practice weakens (Driskell et al., 1994). In my case, I would practice images of handling the ball for all types of game situations. I would re-visualize what I would do with the ball as the number of outs and base runners changed. The most success I achieved with this technique was when the ball was hit quickly to me, most likely because the retention time was short.

Even though I did not know what imagery was or how it worked, I soon realized the best outcomes when I did this with each pitch, even if the game situation had not changed. These are just 2 examples of the specific ways that I used imagery in baseball, even without fully understanding the process. Imagery could also be used to help in the performance of hitting. The kinesthetic imagery process is more about promoting skills that involve timing and is based on how skills or activities feel. Kinesthetic imagery can be very beneficial for baseball because many of the necessary skills, such as hitting, turning a double play, catching a fly ball, and throwing to a base, involve timing and feeling the flow of movement throughout the task.

Many times the athlete's experience level plays a big part in how they are able to use imagery in a particular sport. Zecker (1982) suggested that "mental practice may actually prove detrimental to those with little experience with the task, as the learner has not developed an accurate cognitive representation of the task." (Driskell et al., 1994, pg. 483). If the athlete has not made the connection between the skill and expected performance, successful imagery will be hard to accomplish because they are not sure of what and how to imagine. This is why imagery should be used as a supplement to physical training and not as a replacement. It should be used in contexts other than the physical field of play to maximize the potential that imagery may provide. You can use it at any time and in any context because it is a psychological skill practiced in the mind.

What are some keys to getting the most out of imagery? Some people may have trouble getting a clear image in their minds and others may have trouble controlling the images in their minds. Therefore, vividness and controllability are key components to effective imagery (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Vividness involves using all of your senses when mentally practicing the performance. As a baseball player you might image the smell of the grass, the weight of the bat, or the sound of the crowd. All of these contribute to the vividness of the image. As mentioned in the preceding paragraph, it could be assumed that the experience level of the athlete would affect the vividness of imagery.

A novice with very little experience or skill may have difficulty rendering vivid images. In the case of baseball, the controllability aspect may present many problems because of the high failure to success ratio. Traditionally, an elite level hitter is deemed successful if he/she accomplishes 3 base hits out of 10. In many sports, failing 7 out of 10 times does not reflect an elite level. This is where a person's controllability is very important in not imaging the strikeouts and focusing more on imaging what you want to accomplish (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). As with any other skill from a physical or mental standpoint, development and improvement can be achieved through deliberate use and practice. Later, in a practical application, I would like to present a tool that helps with the different aspects that contribute to a vivid image. These aspects are visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and mood. Adapted from Martens (1982b) and found in Weinberg & Gould (2003), the tool examines how different contexts while watching or participating in sport might affect vividness.

MENTAL SKILL DESCRIPTION
As stated earlier, imagery is a psychological skill that happens in the mind either from an internal or external perspective. It can be visual or kinesthetic and involves many variables that affect it ranging from the type of task, skill level of the performer, and the overall imagery ability of the performer. So, how do we transfer imagery into performance? There are 5 explanations based on different theoretical outlooks as to how this happens. They are the psychoneuromuscular theory, symbolic learning theory, psychological skills hypothesis, bioinformational theory, and the triple code model. The first 3 theories claim that imagery works by producing muscle activity (psychoneuromuscular), providing a mental blueprint (symbolic learning), or improving other psychological skills (psychological skills hypothesis) (Weinberg & Gould, 2003).

According to Weinberg and Gould (2003), the best developed theory for the explanation of imagery's effect is the bioinformational theory (1977, 1979). This theory involves 2 main aspects: stimulus propositions and response propositions. Stimulus propositions use specific features of the scenario to be imagined. Response propositions are the athlete’s response to the stimulus that produces physiological activity (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). If both are present during the imaging process, the imagery is most likely experienced at a more vivid level (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Finally, the triple code model encompasses 3 aspects that are essential to imagery. The first is the image itself. The second is the body's response to the image (much like the bioinformational theory). Third is the meaning of the image to the individual. In other words, the image probably has different meanings to different individuals (Weinberg & Gould, 2003).

Which one of these might best improve baseball performance? The psychoneuromuscular theory provides the kinesthetic explanation of timing in movements that are highly associated with baseball. This theory is alleged to provide kinesthetic feedback to the learner, thereby enhancing the motor sequencing program that directs the skill involved (Driskell et al., 1994). The movements involved in pitching can be felt such as the balance of the body, the location of the arm, or the force used by the legs to accelerate the arm. As a result, transferring this into practice is easier and most likely more successful than just visually seeing yourself pitching without the movement feedback. The same can be said in the skill of hitting when you break down the process into feeling the speed of the ball, weight of the bat, and the loading and exploding effect associated with driving the ball back towards the pitcher. Much like the pitcher internally watching the pitch cross the plate, the hitter can "see" the batted ball move back through the box imagined around the pitcher. Many other baseball skills that involve timing lend themselves to the process of kinesthetic imagery.

In doing research for this paper, I reviewed 3 studies that compared the mental strategies of athletes used during skills performance. The first study researched how strategies differed for participants engaged in differing lengths of activity per week. Analyses revealed that athletes who participated in 10 hours or less of activity per week generally used self-talk strategies, and those who participated in 10 or more hours usually used imagery strategies (Peluso, et al., 2005). This might be due to the experience level of the performers. If the athlete has developed a cognitive interpretation of how the skill is performed and what success may feel like, they are more likely to use imagery as skill and also use it more effectively.

The next study looked at 2 experiments comparing visual and kinesthetic imagery. The study concluded visual imagery is best used when trying to acquire a task that requires form, and kinesthetic imagery is best used when timing and fine coordination of both hands is involved (Fery, 2003). This supports the importance of timing skills in baseball and the use of kinesthetic imagery to innervate muscles and nerves to perform the skill as it should be under many different contexts.

Finally, the third study compared experiments on imagery's ability to enhance performance. Researchers conducted a meta-analysis of imagery literature comparing the types of tasks, retention interval between tasks, experience level of participants, duration of practice, and the type of control groups used to decide which conditions were most effective. The results indicated that imagery did have a positive effect on performance and that the type of task, retention interval between practice and performance, and duration of imagery did have an effect on the level of imagery success (Driskell et al., 1994).

In conclusion, psychological skills are becoming a very important part of our sport and performance dominated society. Today, athletes need an edge to set them apart due to increasing competition resulting from the large number of athletes participating in a given sport at all levels. The growth of sport has brought about change over time that goes beyond the physical aspect. Imagery, arousal control, concentration, goal setting, and other psychological skills are becoming even more important. As discussed above, the use of imagery is an effective way to mentally rehearse success and prepare for different scenarios that may arise in competition. It is important to understand the different types of imagery used and apply the right type to the situation. Many athletes employ multiple types of imagery because they understand that imagery does help enhance performance when used correctly. It is a psychological skill that I believe many people use to some degree without even realizing it. We can achieve even more powerful results on skill performance if we learn to recognize imagery's importance and also practice the skills of vividness and controllability.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The Sport Imagery Questionnaire is the practical application that should be useful in determining which aspect of vividness (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, mood) needs attention when examining different scenarios of sport situations.

Read the following sport situations. For each, imagine the situation and provide as much information as possible (using all the senses: seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling) to make the image as real as possible. Think of a specific example of each situation (e.g. the skill, people involved, the place, the time). Now close your eyes and take a few deep breaths to become as relaxed as you can. Put aside all thoughts. Keep your eyes closed for about 1 minute as you try to imagine the situation as vividly as you can.

After you have completed imaging each scenario, rate the four dimensions of imagery by circling the number that best describes the image you experienced.

1 = No image present
2 = Not clear or vivid, but recognizable image
3 = Moderately clear and vivid image
4 = Clear and Vivid Image
5 = Extremely clear and vivid image

For each situation, pick the number that answers each of these four questions:

Practicing Alone:
Select a specific skill in your sport, such as hitting a baseball, vaulting over the bar, swimming the breastroke, or kicking a goal. Now imagine yourself performing this skill at the place where you normally practice (e.g. gymnasium, pool, field, rink, court), without anyone present. Close your eyes for about 1 minute, and try to see yourself at this place, hear the sounds, feel your body perform the movement, and be aware of your state of mind or mood.

a. ______ b. _____ c. ______ d. ______

Practicing With Others:
You are doing the same activity, but now you are practicing the skill with your coach and teammates present. This time, however, you make a mistake that everyone notices.

a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. _______

Watching A Teammate:
Think of a teammate or an acquaintance performing a specific skill unsuccessfully in competition, such a dropping a pass, falling off the balance beam, or missing an empty net.

a. ______ b. ______ c. ______ d. _______

Playing in a contest:
Imagine yourself performing in a competition. You are performing very skillfully, and the spectators and teammates are showing their appreciation.

a. ______ b. _______ c. _______ d. _______

Scoring:
Now determine your imagery scores and see what they mean. Add the ratings for your 4 answers to part a. in each section, your 4 answers for part b. in each section, and so on, recording them below.

Total Dimension Score:
a. Visual         ______ + _____ + _____ + _____ = ______
b. Auditory     ______ + _____ + _____ + _____ = ______
c. Kinesthetic ______ + _____ + _____ + _____ = ______
d. Mood         ______ + _____ + _____ + _____ = ______

For each dimension, your top possible score is 20 and your lowest possible score is 4. The closer you come to 20 on each dimension, the more skilled you are in that particular area. Lower scores mean you need to work on these aspects of you imagery vividness.
Questionnaire Adapted from (Weinberg and Gould, 2003)

REFERENCES
Driskell, J. E., Copper, C., & Moran, A. (1994). Does Mental Practice Enhance Performance? Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 4, 481-492.
Fery, Y. (2003). Differentiating Visual and Kinesthetic Imagery in Mental Practice. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 57, 1, 1-10.
Peluso, E. A., Ross, M. J., Gfeller, J. D., & LaVoie, D. J. (2005). A Comparison of Mental Strategies During Athletic Skills Performance. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 4, 543-549.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2003) Foundations of Sport & Exercise Psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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