As a past basketball coach at the Division I level, I have often wondered what it is that makes athletes tick. What is the driving force behind their motivation? If harnessed, this priceless bit of knowledge could be used in all arenas of athletics. Obviously a motivated athlete is going to perform better than a non-motivated one, and only very few coaches have unlocked the mystery of how to motivate their players during competition. What do they do and say to have this success? This article will attempt to explain the meaning of motivation, as well as use personal experiences coupled with research, to give coaches effective motivational strategies useful in competition.

According to Vallerand and Thill (1993), motivation is a concept described as "the hypothetical construct used to describe the internal and/or external forces that produce the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior" (p. 18). Prominent theories on motivation include Vallerand and Losier's (1999) integrated theory of motivation in sport. Vallerand and Losier incorporate Deci and Ryan's (1985) concept of self-determination in a sport environment as the core of their theory. The theory explains how social factors, including coaches' behavior, affect the athlete's psychological perceptions pertaining to motivation.

Vallerand and Losier (1999) seek to explain how social factors, such as success/failure, competition/cooperation, and coaches' behavior are responsible for the beliefs that athletes have about themselves. Psychological perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness are three basic needs that every individual has. The quality of these psychological concepts is dependent on the quality of social experiences the athlete has had. This explains the importance of the motivational climate created by coaches (Cox, 2002).

Deci and Ryan (1985) stand at the forefront of motivational analysis. They have developed a Self-Determination Theory that emphasizes the distinction between behaviors driven intrinsically, for the innately derived motives of interest, fun, enjoyment, and challenge, and those driven extrinsically by factors such as rewards, external gain, or material gain (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

This theory has brought about three major types of motivation: intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation. An individual is intrinsically motivated when performing an activity simply for the reward of the activity itself (Deci, 1975). Extrinsically motivated athletes participate in order to receive or avoid something once the activity has ended. Most often factors such as trophies, money, or championships play a role in this type of motivation. Amotivation occurs when athletes experience incompetence and lack of control (Chantal, Guay, Dobreva-Martinova, & Vallerand, 1996). This is typical when athletes feel they have lost control of the ability to obtain the desired results of training. This loss of control initiates feelings of helplessness.

Coaches do not use just one method to motivate their players as every team and player responds differently to different types of stimulation. Therefore, coaches use a variety of strategies such as positive and negative verbal cues, non-verbal cues, mental toughness, adjustments, the media, and ultimatums to increase motivation in their players during competition. Although some of the following examples stem from successful college basketball coaches, the examples and theories can be seen as transferable across sports and coaching contexts.

Verbal Cues

Verbal cues are perhaps the most important strategy in motivation. Coaches, who are very successful, tend to use frequent positive verbal cues. This may include some of the following: "Good job!", "Keep working hard!", "You are doing great!", "Do not let up!", and "Keep shooting!" For example, Johnny Dawkins who used to play for Mike Krzyzewski at Duke University missed four shots in a row during a game. Coach Krzyzewski (2000) pulled him aside and said, "Johnny, the next time down, I want you to take another shot. Be confident. You're going to make the next shot" (p. 75). In this example, coach Krzyzewski fosters confidence and encouragement in his athlete, helping him to stay focused. This type of positive verbal feedback has shown to produce higher levels of intrinsic motivation (Amorose & Horn, 2000; Deci, 1971; Vallerand & Reid, 1988; Vallerand, Deci, & Ryan, 1987). Thus, positive feedback or verbal cues can be an effective strategy to increase a player's motivation.

Negative verbal cues are probably the most widely observed action of a coach; at least they are the most remembered. Profanity is occasionally used, and at times, it acts as a motivational strategy. In ESPN's recent film, A Season on the Brink (2002), it shows how Bobby Knight used hard, graphic language to degrade his players. This use of profanity is his way of getting the desired response from his athletes. However, profanity is not the only source of negative verbal feedback that coaches use; statements like: "That was horrible!", "You can't do anything right!", "You are not giving your best!", and "Never shoot again!", are also used (Vallerand & Reid, 1988). This type of feedback decreases intrinsic motivation and retracts self-confidence and competence. Although some players do feed off this strategy of motivation, other more positive strategies should be implemented.

Non-verbal Cues

Verbal cues are obvious forms of communication and seem to be logical as a strategy of motivation. However, one of the most overlooked motivational strategies of a coach includes non-verbal cues. During a competition coaches may clap, nod or shake their head, pump their fist, throw their hands in the air in a disgusted manner, or pound their fist on the scorer's table. Body language, posture, and eye-to-eye contact also act as forms of non-verbal cues.

Words sometimes cannot express what a coach wishes to say to an athlete. For this reason, a coach will glare at a player signifying unhappiness, disappointment, frustration, and dissatisfaction. Most athletes know what this look is and it lets them know that if performance continues to decrease, they will most likely be sitting out the rest of the game. Hence, the athlete becomes motivated to try harder and focus more on the task. Vallerand and Rousseau (2001) state, "the way coaches and instructors typically interact with their athletes can influence greatly athlete's motivation" (p.399). From personal experience coaching at the Division I level, I have noticed that players seem to feed off these movements and are motivated either in a positive or negative manner.

Exhibiting Mental Toughness

From personal experience, most athletes do not desire a tongue-lashing or want a fist waived in their face when they make a mistake. By allowing the team or player to correct their own mistakes, without calling a time-out, the coach displays mental toughness. This in turn can motivate players to get things corrected; the player/team has the opportunity to show competence in the given task, and fix the problem, which increases intrinsic motivation (Vallerand & Losier, 1999).

In addition, by keeping a positive mental attitude and demeanor, coaches may motivate players. Constant positive plodding is a good example of this point. When athletes know that a coach trusts them and supports them in the decisions they make, the player/team makes sacrifices more easily. The players then buy into the team concept and want what is best for the team. The combination of these actions shows the coach's mental toughness, which in turn motivates players.

Adjustments

Sometimes in order to get the desired results, a coach must mix things up a little bit. Coaches cannot help all athletes become motivated the same way. The coach's job entails finding each player's individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF). Hanin (1989) developed this theory suggesting that if each athlete's optimal prestart state anxiety level before a competition can be determined, then it should be possible to help them attain this level through arousal control techniques. Therefore, coaches need to adjust accordingly.

These adjustments occur in the form of changing the defenses or offenses, mixing up the line-up, making substitutions and pre-game and halftime speeches. Some players only like to play at certain tempos and certain styles. Some prefer an up-tempo game, while others like to slow it down and grind it out. Changing the offenses and defenses allows each player to have a chance to become motivated with his or her style of play. Mixing up the line-up also helps to motivate athletes. Cox (2002) explains, "To a large extent, an athlete's enjoyment in sport is associated with how she relates to other athletes on her team" (p.75). Making substitutions can provide opportunities for some athletes to compete with teammates of choice, thereby furthering their motivation. Pre-game and halftime provide opportunities to give feedback and encouragement to players, helping them increase performance and effort. Successful coaches do not remain complacent, but rather they adapt to new and different situations.

Media

A coach may also use the media during pre-game, halftime, and time outs. The media is a great tool for the coach to use to help increase the motivation of his or her players. One example is statistics. Most players want to know how many points, assists, or rebounds they had during or after a contest, so they can get their average. Coaches may use intermediate statistics as a tool to motivate players to get their average. Perhaps an athlete is seeking a rebounding title or has a specific goal to accomplish. In this case, coaches may skew the statistics, by saying that a player has less rebounds than he actually has or by telling the player that he has ten turnovers in order that the player take better care of the ball. Both examples portray extrinsic motivation strategies. The players are competing in part for a reward, and in order to obtain the reward, the players motivate themselves to accomplish the task.

Ultimatums

In conjunction with media, ultimatums challenge players to evaluate and increase their performance or sit on the bench. If the player does not get the job done, the coach will make a substitution. Because most athletes love to play the game, (assuming that is the reason for competition) this method is a nice tool to increase motivation (Vallerand & Losier, 1999). Athletes compete for the enjoyment and rewards of sport. This strategy is based upon the principle that athletes are motivated to want to play and receive playing time. If these minutes are threatened, the athlete motivates him/herself to get the job done so that playing time is preserved. John Wooden, former coach of the University of California, Los Angeles Bruins, was one of the most successful college basketball coaches in history. In his book They Call Me Coach (1988), he says talking of a player who was not performing well, "I finally told him to go down to the end of the bench and stay there until he felt he was ready to play" (p. 163). The player then came back in to have the best game of his college career.

Summary

Motivational strategies differ from coach to coach. The athlete's perceptions are vital in addressing motivation and high-level performance. Each player also has a different way of perceiving feedback and coaches need to understand each player's reason for motivation in order to use the appropriate strategy. Different coaching strategies help to increase player motivation by changing the player's perceptions, or in some cases, helping them to realize what their actual perceptions are. Many successful coaches use or have used the strategies listed previously. If used in the correct context and time frame, they can be effective strategies for motivating players during competition.

*References available from Wade Gilbert and Jenelle N. Gilbert.